Difficulties to Be Prepared for Online Classes Essay

Difficulties to Be Prepared for Online Classes - Essay Example This is especially true for online classes where there isn’t a teacher there to bother you about your assignments every day. No matter what I always do the assignments immediately and allow plenty of time in case I need help. If I have any trouble with my assignments or with the class in general I know I can go to the instructor. I never hesitate to ask my instructor questions when I have problems. If the instructor is unavailable I have classmates I can go to for help as well. It is also important that I buy the instructor recommended books so that I can follow along in class and learn from my experiences. In conclusion, the best things I can do to prepare for class are to take time out of my day to concentrate on my studies, do all of the assignments quickly and thoroughly, and ask for help when I need it. There are many other ways to do well in class and practice good classroom skills, but these are the main ways that I have found work best for me in the past, and will cont inue to use.

The past in a streetcar named desire Essay Example for Free

The past in a streetcar named desire Essay The Role of the Past in a Streetcar Named Desire French writer Andri Maurois once said: A man cannot free himself from the past more easily than he can from his own body. This quote exemplifies one of the central themes in Tennessee Williams A Streetcar Named Desire. The past is something that characters are locked within chaining them to secret misdeeds and shameful actions ultimately leading them to the question of reality versus illusion, revealing their weaknessess and leading some of them towards their downfall. Williams presents to the audience the first issues of dealing with the past by one of the protagonists, Blanche. Born and raised in the Southern aristocracy, she cannot free herself from her rich past. She first arrives at the Kowalskys aparment daintily dressed in white in a white suit with a fluffy bodice, necklaces and ear-rings of pearl, white gloves and hat (pg 117) conveying the idea of a summer classic, completely contrasting with the jungle-like atmosphere of decay prevalent in the French Quarter. The author focuses on Blanches introduction as a dramatic technique in order to emphasize the idea of someone who is drawn to the past, by simply describing her wardrobe. Her white clothing portray her similar to a moth, drawn by the light, instead of repelled by it as the audience will soon notice. Her pearls symbolize the sadness she suffers from loss of love and failure. Despite all this, she maintains her rich-girl posture to remain linked to her past in Belle Reve. The plantation in which she and Stella grew up in was lost as their fathers, uncles, and brothers spent all their money drinking, gambling and womanizing. She is haunted by the deaths of her ancestors, which she attributes to their epic fornications. The sins of the fathers are visited upon their children is a good example of Blanches hysterical outburst in page 126, where she says, in an emotionally loaded phrase, I fought and bled. Tennessee Williams makes it clear that one cannot escape genetic inheritance because at the end, it all comes back. Another aspect of Blanche is also introduced to the audience in Scene 1, adding to her characterization: alcoholism. Blanche suffers from delirium tremens as she is drinking from Stanleys whisky bottle in page 120. She effortless tries to convince herself that ones her limit but instead just goes on drinking. Alcohol offers her a temporary amnesia, and a feeling of reassurance but instead, her actions become quite convulsive as she is talking to Stella and shaking all over and panting for breath as she tries to laugh. A state of drunken stupor enables her to take a flight of imagination, such as concocting a getaway with Shep Huntleigh. Her actions, however, do not go unnoticed by Stellas husband, Stanley, as he remarks liquor goes fast in this hot weather (pg 129). Equally, bathing has the same effect on Blanche, as the action is a motif for cleansing, as in baptism, where one is introduced to a new path, a new light. In light of her efforts to forget and shed her illicit past in the new community of New Orleans, these baths represent her efforts to cleanse herself of her odious history. Stanley also turns to water to undo a misdeed when he showers after beating Stella. The shower serves to soothe his violent temper; afterward, he leaves the bathroom feeling remorseful and calls out longingly for his wife (pg 153). Blanches long baths can be seen in almost all Scenes followed by her comments of being freshly bathed and scented, and feeling like a brand-new human being! (Pg 135). However, as Blanche finds herself in constant struggle against her past, Stella has no trouble forgetting it and marrying Stanley. Although she does feel sympathy for the loss of Belle Reve and weeps as Blanche accuses her of indifference (pg 127), she has thoroughly moved on and found confort in Stanleys arms and has chosen to be a part of his life, even adapting to his likes, such as that of reading a book of coloured comics. She no longer has a desire to live the aristocratic life as the plantation is an illusion of the past. By contrast, this scenery has been destroyed, giving space to a urbanized, modernized New Orleans setting. Stella can be seen as a catalyst to Stanley and Blanche as she is driven towards comercialism and has ignored to role of a fallen woman. She has married to Stanley Kowalsky, who has an intense, brutish masculinity, and takes pride in his sexual appetite. Stanley, in a way, denies his roots by responding to Blanche as she calls him a Polack, But what I am is a one hundred per cent American, born and raised in the greatest country on earth and proud as hell of it, so dont ever call me a Polack. (Pg 197) Following Stanley, Mitch is introduced. He acts as a foil to Stanley, as he is clumsy, slow thinking, shy, and insecure. The jokes present at the beginning of scene 33 (pg 144) are a parallel to Mitch, implying that he has spent so much time taking care of his ill mother that he has completely lost his sexual appetite. He has lived with his mother for his entire life, and cannot get away from the comfort zone. The only way to get away is by getting married to Blanche, which at first seems like a good idea for she does everything to look as feminine as possible, trying to conceal her past. For herself, Blanche sees marriage to Mitch as her means of escaping destitution. Mens exploitation of Blanches sexuality has left her with a poor reputation. This reputation makes Blanche an unattractive marriage prospect, but, because she is destitute, marriage is her only possibility for survival. Her will to impress Mitch is addressed by Williams through the interaction between them, where he speaks ungrammatically short and contemptuous lines, while Blanche evidently speaks with an enormous and overused vocabulary, which is artificially calculated and constructed by her in order for her achieve her aims. This is especially true in this scene, since Blanche resorts once more to the educated speech of a schoolteacher in order to take control of an aggressive situation (pg 150-51). The question of which characters represents light and dark is debatable, but it seems that both have an aspect of softness and harshness, whichever the audience decides to sympathize with. Even though Mitch and Blanches characters are complete opposites, there is one correlation between them. Blanches love letters from her husband as well as Mitchs cigarette case with love inscriptions with Blanches favorite sonnet by Mrs Browning (pg 149) show both of them holding onto their past. The silver metal case symbolizes Mitchs closed nature, inflexibility, as well as how he is not open for new ideas. Blanches love letters, on the other hand, symbolizes her young husband, who committed suicide as a result from her disapproval of his homosexuality. The love letters are taken as sacred objects, having a more than a sentimental value. In Scene 2, when Stanley is looking for Belle Reves papers, Blanche cannot contain herself from making a scandal after he touches the love letters instead, Your [Stanley] hands insult them, Ill burn them now! (Pg 139) The antagonistic relationship between Blanche and Stanley is a struggle between appearances and reality propelling the plays plot and creating an overarching tension. The author also conveys the idea of hiding from the past with the motif of light. Blanche tries to maintain the illusion of youth because she is afraid that she will become less attractive as she ages. She hides from all light, and when Mitch finally realises this (I dont think I ever seen you in the light pg 203), he shines a light on her, representing the death of her illusions, the possibility of getting married again. In general, light also symbolizes the reality of Blanches past. In Scene 6, she says the young boy turned a blinding light on something that had always been half in shadow. Bright light, therefore, represents Blanches youthful sexual innocence, while poor light represents her sexual maturity and disillusionment. She is haunted by the ghosts of what she has lost-her first love, her purpose in life, her dignity, and the genteel society of her ancestors. Blanche covers the exposed lightbulb in the Kowalski apartment with a Chinese paper lantern, and she refuses to go on dates with Mitch during the daytime or to well-lit locations. He points out her avoidance of light in Scene Nine, when he confronts her with the stories Stanley has told him of her past. Mitch then forces Blanche to stand under the direct light as she responds by saying that she doesnt want realism. I want Magic! Yes, yes, magic! I dont tell the truth. I tell what ought to be truth! This passage in page 204, clearly describes her inability to accept her present status both socially and relationship wise. Blanches inability to tolerate light means that her grasp on reality is also nearing its end. Other dramatic devices used to portray the interference of the past in the characters lives are the sound effects. The Varsouviana, a song originally from Polands Warsaw, is used to dramatise the influence of the past on the present. It plays whenever Blanche remembers her past in Belle Reve and especially her husband Alan, who she always refers to as a boy, emphasising her feeling that they were too young to be married. When the music first appears, in scene one, it is because Stanley asks Blanche if she was married. This immediately shows the audience that the Varsouviana is related to Blanches past and will be a recurring motif throught the text. The polka and the moment it evokes represent Blanches loss of innocence. The suicide of the young husband Blanche loved dearly was the event that triggered her mental decline. Since then, Blanche hears the Varsouviana followed by a revolver shot whenever she panics and loses her grip on reality. The music plays in Blanches brain continuously as a recording that only the audience is likely to hear. In conclusion, the past is therefore recurring as all the characters have something hid, incapacibilitating them from performing some actions. It is unveilled as the play progresses proving once more, than one cannot free itself from it, but instead have to confront it, eventually leading some of them (Blanche) to their human desingtegration. Tennesse Williams A Streetcar Named Desire conveys the idea of the importance of ancestry and adds to the question of does your background affect what kind of actions you will persue in the future? Show preview only

Effect of Health Inequalities on Children

Effect of Health Inequalities on Children Introduction Children, defined generally as those individuals who are below the age of 18 years old (Definition of the Child, 2000), have yet to rise to their functions and roles in society. According to a census made last 2002, children 0-14 years of age were shown to comprise about 2 billion of the global population and outnumbered all the other age groups. The study has also made projections of the group population and dictates that the children age group will remain relatively constant at 30% up until the next fifty years (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004). A clear sign of wellness and health in society is evidenced by healthy children, making communities more dynamic. This paper has the objective of discussing the current condition of health care which influences their general well-being in a large and significant way. The report also took into significant consideration economic status as an important determinant of the childs environment. The study attempts to respond to the question: How does the wellness of children living in a poor nation differ from those in affluent nations? There will also be a discussion about the plans that are aiming for the improvement of the system at health care, such as the newly revised Healthy People 2010 (Donatelle, 2006), and the inclusion of theoretical viewpoints. A report that utilizes these collections of empirical, scientific and systematic knowledge and data from previous studies ensures more objective and valid assertions. Recommendations on the possible courses of action that focus on aspects of children health care towards authentic healthcare transformation are cited. This report of a closer examination of the health care system delivered to children is directed to Dr. Sutherland. Ultimately, the purpose of this study is to come up with an aggregation of relevant information about child health care, including their implications on the well-being of the child. Background Maroubra Child Care Centre is committed to the provision of high quality childcare to all children and families at the centre. Maroubra Child Care Centre has typically used health and wellness conversely. In actual sense, the centre has defined the two terms differently in different circumstances. Unlike before, however, Maroubra Child Care Centre now has a higher standard for health not merely regarding it as the absence of sickness (Donatelle, 2006). Throughout this report, health has been defined as the dynamic process of accomplishing possible capacity in each person on the dimensions of health. Wellness will be defined as the actualization of the optimum level of the dimensions of health (Donatelle, 2006). To achieve wellness, Maroubra Child Care Centre is much successful at achieving the dimensions of health-physical health, intellectual health, social health, emotional health, environmental health and spiritual health. Each of the dimensions has been characterized as complimen tary to one another. A child could not be considered as being healthy with failure to attain one of the dimensions (Donatelle, 2006). Therefore, the attainment of the well-being of children necessitates that Maroubra Child Care Centre staff is properly educated on the six dimensions of health and how each dimension may be addressed pragmatically. Discussion Physical health is the most familiar concept of health that children have. This is the most fundamental dimension in which they consider the attributes, conditions and capabilities of childrens body (Donatelle, 2006). To attain success in the other dimensions, children must achieve physical well-being. Additionally, intellectual health is defined as childrens capacity for reasoning, analysis, learning or any ability of the brain which we efficiently use every day. An intellectually capable child would not only be successful in learning from experiences or analyzing life situations but could effectively come up with solutions to any difficulties that arise. Children must be equipped with this ability. Social health pertains to chioldrens ability to establish effectively relate and interact with other children and other people as well as cope with changes in the social environment (Donatelle, 2006). A child for that matter is in need of this dimension as a functioning unit which Maroub ra Child Care Centre staff has been educated upon to provide to the society. Emotional well-being arises from emotional health. It involves childrens capability to control and respond with the right emotions to situations in their life. This is also very crucial for the well-being of a child because it includes their feelings of confidence, love and trust for theselves and for others. Environmental health is the centres concern for the state of childrens environment as individuals who have the obligation to maintain, guard, and develop it (Donatelle, 2006). The Maroubra Child Care Centre staff, is well acquainted with the notion that, in Children who have been properly cared for and have achieved holistic well-being are aware of their responsibility to the continuity of the environment, hence have been educated to ensure that this objective is attained in their children. Finally, spiritual health, which refers to childrens faiths in a supreme being, feeling of being united with his or her environment and sense of life value, completes the well-being of a child (Donatelle, 2006). The centre has taken spiritual health dimension to assist their children in realizing their purpose and experience emotions that make for an even deeper, grander and richer way of life. To effectively pinpoint the faults in Maroubra Child Care Centre system for the children, it is good to look at the current conditions of dthe society as a whole. According to a past publication, the centre raise children in a culture of impatience and undoubtedly, this have negative effects on them (Neville, 1999). Examining Maroubra Child Care Centre, the centre is still at the age, where technology has been swiftly advancing and peoples beliefs are inevitably evolving, children have grown addicted to the rapid acceleration of life. Children fail to receive proper nutrition because their parents have to work, which leads back to the desire to save in order to purchase things that are sometimes considered not necessary, rather than following trends outlined in Maroubra Child Care Centre. How could then children be raised with well-being? The effect that is quite disturbing is how parents and guardians are able to throw away relationships so quickly. Divorces and separations have bee n commonplace in the community. What then, will become of the children? Growing up would be difficult where children could be tossed around like a ping-pong ball, back and forth between their parents and there is proof for that. In a survey for industrialized countries, there was a prevalence rate of 7% to 15% of mental illnesses among children under 13 years of age (McMurray, 2007 At a Maroubra Child Care Centre, they have a longer list of problems that needs to be resolved. If Westernization is not their rival in raising healthy children, it is poverty and lack of health teaching and support from the government for pregnancy, child birth and parenting among countries especially underdeveloped ones (McMurray, 2007). This triggers a chain reaction-both parents are forced to work while the children are raised by other care provider which affects their sense of belongingness and trust causing them to become more stressed or aggressive. ). In dealing with such like problems, the Maroubra Child Care Centre management committee has been organizing seminars for their staff to be educated on how to handle such like societal problems. Fortunately, Maroubra Child Care Centre has noticed the dilemma. Some actions have begun for prevention of exposure of children to any harmful factors and realize childrens well-being. A huge chunk of the percentage of childhood injuries or deaths has been prevented by raising awareness in the family. The centre has properly educated child care providers by providing instructions in its websites. It has also helped resolving this issue with conducting researches and studies to broaden their knowledge (McMurray, 2007). In response to that, they have improved their concern in comprehensive programs in areas such as smoking, proper nutrition and quality of health services (Donatelle, 2006). Health promotion programs are being directed towards the reduction of negative health behavior and promotion of positive change. Included also in these programs is the prevention of disease. The management has also been assigned to accomplish this task by educating its staff as well as other workers who are be able to competently create, put into action, and examine programs for disease prevention. However, this program is being faced with some difficulties as prioritization of disease prevention, has been neglected in the past (Donatelle, 2006). There is a considerably long list of accomplishments in the Maroubra Child Care Centre system that benefits childrens well-being. To start with, immunization has successfully reached and surpassed the goals which were set by the centre, (Murray, 2007). Included and worth mentioning are the achievements of the CDCs goals in Maroubra Child Care Centre, which are safety in the use of motor vehicles and in the workplace, management of infections, cardiovascular disease, clean and nutritious foods, maternal and infant care, setting up of services for family planning, fluoridated drinking water and identification of smoking as a hazardous habit (Donatelle, 2006). As a result, they have been able to save countless lives from an otherwise preventable death. In achieving the dimensions, the staff is well educated in provision of a safe, nurturing environment which is much inclusive and how to respect cultural differences and diversity with no gender bias. The staff has been trained on how to work with other professionals along with families to cater for any child who needs additional care. They know that all children are unique individuals who are able to learn and develop through the process of exploration within an educational play based curriculum. They are acquainted with the childrens interests and caters for their interests, weaknesses and strength. As an effect, they all aim at encouraging language, mathematics, and social as well as physical skills. Conclusion The adequacy of child health care is indeed questionable as Maroubra Child Care Centre. Even with success in the implementation of the plans, the department that governs these actions responding to the situation of childrens health must not feel contentment. The centre initiative (Donatelle, 2006) sets goals that merely elevate a targeted population above an alarming level but not completely transcends society into the marker for health and well-being especially among children. Furthermore, conducting research and establishing guidelines by the centre (Donatelle, 2006) is not sufficient. They must be able to extend this knowledge to the majority of the health care providers of children, if not all. Otherwise, their efforts would be trivial. Depending on which theoretical perspective the centre applies, the hierarchy of power over health differs. Using a Marxist, Parsons and Foucault view point, the major allocation of power over social health is on the established and dominant structures. The other theories viewed individuals with more power than the previous theory and have more control by making compromises with the strong social structures (Grbich, 1999). The last relevant theory would be the postmodern/post structural theory where the possibility of a fair and equal society is attainable therefore the centre need to be more flexible and develop different aspects of health operations (Grbich, 1999). The centres management has to build a health system that is close if not precisely the equivalent of a post structural society where every child has equal not equivocal rights to care for their health and well-being. Recommendations Having a huge influence on the people in the society, the centre should use its power to create policies or support systems that will provide for all the childrens health and wellness. They should focus and improve on public health issues such as administering free vaccinations on a larger scale and establishing safety standards in the workplace (Donatelle, 2006). Everything can eventually be traced back to the most fundamental unit of society, the family. Even before children are part of society, they begin their lives as part of a family composed of them and the parents. While it would be convenient to believe that, adults can easily perceive or determine what the young ones are experiencing, that is not always the case. They concentrate on the physical health of a child while mostly fail to address the emotional needs which will be successfully succeeded by the other dimensions of health such as social and mental health (Hood, 2009). It would be better for the centre to educate parents on how they can identify meaning of some subtle cues that they subconsciously send out. Furthermore, they need to adults must be cautious with the use of simple, almost commonplace lectures such as you should be ashamed of yourself. It has been shown that their children have a barrier for them in handling their emotional well-being (Sorin, 2004). As a result, the centre has to search for a better way to deal with emotions such as sadness or fear should be done to ensure the holistic well-being of a child. For instance, learning to welcome their feelings by acknowledging, empathizing, discussing or even creatively role play with their children (Sorin, 2004). A common mistake that leads to an emotionally distressed child is when caretakers say things will be okay. Of course, realistically this does not hold as a reality. A more appropriate way to help the child is saying that they can find an approach to manage their emotion (Sorin, 2004). According to Hood, every childs well-being has been established on how emotionally healthy he or she is. Starting from infancy, children have been trying to connect to their caretakers to feel the security that he or she requires as a basic human need (Hood, 2009). To begin deve loping the well-being for children with education and training about proper health practices, it should be a first concern raised in the centre.

Comparing A Plea for Gas Lamps and Jekyll and Hyde :: comparison compare contrast essays

A Plea for Gas Lamps and Jekyll and Hyde      Ã‚  Ã‚   In "A Plea for Gas Lamps" Robert Louis Stevenson describes how, with the advent of urban gaslight, "a new age had begun for sociality and corporate pleasure seeking." Referring to the lamps as "domesticated stars," he describes the new lamplit city emerging gracefully as a festive public sphere in which "soft joys prevail" and "people are convoked to pleasure." Wolfgang Schivelbush connects such gaslit pleasure directly to commerce. "Gaslight offered life, warmth and closeness. This was true also of the relationship between light and the shop goods upon which it fell. They were close to each other, indeed, they permeated each other, and each enhanced the effect of the other."(153)    At the same time, however, the industrial uniformity of gas streetlighting made many uneasy. Like the railway, it represented a dehumanizing, centrally regulated urban infrastructure. "With a public gas supply, domestic lighting entered its industrial -- and dependent -- stage. No longer self-sufficiently producing its own heat and light, each house was inextricably tied to an industrial energy producer. . . . To contemporaries it seemed that industries were expanding, sending out tentacles, octopus-like, into every house."(28-29) This dread of uniformity became intensified as incandescent gas lighting, high pressure gas lighting (Robins 142), and finally electric arc-lighting grew more common in urban settings. People became immediately nostalgic for the flicker of gaslight, and the inhuman qualities of street lighting were directly associated with the brightness and uniformity of electric arc-lights. For Stevenson, the immediacy and central control of electric lighting transforms the city into a technological nightmare: "Our tame stars are to come out in future, not one by one, but all in a body and at once. A sedate electrician somewhere in a back office touches a spring -- and behold! . . . the design of the monstrous city flashes into vision -- a glittering hieroglyph many square miles in extent." The monstrosity of the city is defined by this sudden, startling uniformity, which obliterates the its pleasing variety, rendering it a vast, but simple design.

Regret by Kate Chopin Essay

In the short story â€Å"Regret† by Kate Chopin, a woman named Mamzelle Aurelie has to watch a neighbor’s four children for two weeks. Mamzelle is an old and lonely woman who never believed in love or marriage. She has never had a man, nor been married, and lives alone on her farm with some animals. She also has African Americans, or â€Å"negroes†, who work around her house for maintenance. Because of a dangerous illness that her mother acquired, the younger neighbor had to leave, and could no longer watch after her children. This is where Mamzelle comes in, who has never had children before. In the beginning, she has great problems managing the children. However, after a short period of time, she begins realizing that humans need more than just food and a place to sleep. This is when she really starts to develop a relationship with the children. Once the children return to their mother, Mamzelle cries very heavily in remorse. In the beginning, Mamzelle is described as â€Å"a good strong figure, ruddy cheeks† and â€Å"a determined eye†. She wears â€Å"a man’s hat† and â€Å"a blue army overcoat†. and even sometimes â€Å"top-boots†. From her brief description, it is clear that there is no femininity, nor does there appear to be any desire to become more feminine. Before meeting the children, there was no desire to become more feminine, until realizing what she had been missing out on. She is forced to play a feminine role, by cooking, sewing, and telling the children bedtime stories to fall asleep. She softens to the point in which she cries, and carries a regret in her heart from never having her own children. The main theme of the story, which is the title of the poem, is regret. The woman in the story has lived a lonely life, and she thought that she was happy with the life she had. It wasn’t until taking care of her neighbor’s children did she realize what she was missing out on by being alone. For the first time, while caring for those children, she began to realize all the joys and sadness that life brings. She has regret that she didn’t live life to its fullest, regret that she didn’t want that priceless joy in her life,  and regret that she was too old to try and acquire it.

The Role of Brand Prominence

In today’s society more now than ever, is run by money. Even though most say we’re all considered equal, many people still pass judgments based on one’s social status and how much money a person is worth. People in society today like to flaunt their wealth and constantly try to outdo each other despite what really might actually be going on. Things such as the bigger house, the brand name clothes, expensive jewelry, and the nicest car are what people may use to determine their social status.With our society, people feel as though they gain more respect if they appear of a higher social class. Unfortunately, in America we are divided up into classes based upon monetary status and how we are perceived. These classes consist of the lower class, the lower middle class which is about 20% of the population and is mostly made up of minority groups. Then there’s the lower middle and upper middle class which is the vast majority of the population. Then last but not least there is the upper class; this class is only made up of about 1%-3% of the American population.The total wealth of the upper class equals the wealth of the lower 95% of the American population. The extremely small group of wealthy people is what most people aspire to become because is today’s world, money is power. Which for most people money is everything and you can’t them any different. The popular phrase †money can’t buy happiness† is not more or less completely true. Despite what most people may think or say money can bring you remotely close to happiness. Everyone knows money can buy friendship or love but it can buy that luxurious lifestyle you always dreamed of.Money can build character which would contribute to your social status. It also says a lot about you and how you portray yourself to others. Having an abundant amount of money determines your health, education, and your standard way of living. Being wealthy also puts you in a co nfident mindset and can help you become a better person in life or do the wrong things with your money and have all your hard work go to waste. Even though everyone is entitled to the same rights those people who are in the lower class have to work much harder to reach success.It’s obvious that wealthier people have more advantages over those in the lower class. That also puts those in that class in a tighter spot but pushes them to move towards their goals and work harder. On the outside all Americans have equal rights no matter what class you’re in but yet those much wealthier have more access and advantages to a better life due to the fact that money is power. Those types of saying and judgments are what people live by day to day to make those who work hard feel as though they’re not working hard enough or just no worthy.The average person is found working at a fast food restaurant or a supermarket checkout line doing their hard earns work. The average rich m an is sitting behind a desk with an expensive suit in a leather chair or found in an emergency room operating on someone. Most say if you don’t go to college you’ll never make it to be successful which is not entirely true. There are plenty of people with college degrees that still ended up in the lower social class because of something that they chose to do or didn’t do. For instance, what would you say about someone who is living in a trailer park?Poor, dirty, lazy, uneducated trashy slob but that’s only said because we’re in a different social class than them people who live like them may not look at it that way. You never know, what are they saying about us? Just because someone is living differently than you doesn’t mean label them to a lower class. You really don’t know what they’re going through or have been through that landed them there. Being a part of a certain social class takes a toll on everyone who tries to be pe rceived other than whom they really are.People should just accept the class that they are in and work towards bigger things than putting themselves in a much worse situation trying to do differently than what they are used to. Healthcare is a major issue due to how the classes are divided. People who are in the lower class can’t afford it but they’re the ones most likely to become ill and need to be treated. Those of the upper class appear to be healthier and have healthcare but really don’t utilize it. These are issues that should be reviewed and worked out no matter what social class your apart of.In conclusively no matter how hard you may work in life, the people of highest or higher social status or class will get the better treatment and uphold a better lifestyle with more opportunities in life.References Han, Y. , Nunes, J. , & Dreze, X. (2010). Signaling Status with Luxury Goods: The Role of Brand Prominence. Journal of Marketing,  74(4), 15-30. doi:10. 1509/jmkg. 74. 4. 15. Retrieved from http://search. ebscohost. com/login. aspx? direct=true&db=ufh&AN=51168738&site=ehost-live

Used To vs. Use To

Used To vs. Use To Used To vs. Use To Used To vs. Use To By Maeve Maddox A reader asks, Which is correct    He USED to go to the game on Friday. He USE to go to the game on Friday. When the statement is positive, as in the reader’s example, the expression is used to. In negative statements, the expression is use to. For example, â€Å"He didn’t use to go to the game on Friday.† The expressions are used to speak about things that were habitually done in the past. Both used and use are followed by an infinitive. For example: We used to play baseball every Saturday. I used to live in Cleveland. There used to be a house on that corner. The d is dropped when the sentence is negative: I didn’t use to worry about money. I didn’t use to celebrate Christmas. There didn’t use to be a gas station on that corner. Here are some current examples from the Web: Chris Pratt Used To Live In A Scooby Doo Van Pope Francis reveals he used to work as a bar bouncer He [Jon Stewart] didn’t use to care and his show was funnier. Actors didnt use to be celebrities. Women didnt use to  talk  politics  in this country.   I used to tell people wed sell everything but the kitchen sink. I  used to  love this view   Positive sentence: used to. Negative sentence with didn’t: use to. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Misused Words category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Spelling Test 134 Writing Tips That Will Make You a Better WriterThe Difference Between "Shade" and "Shadow"

Balance Redox Reaction Example Problem

Balance Redox Reaction Example Problem When balancing redox reactions, the overall electronic charge must be balanced in addition to the usual molar ratios of the component reactants and products. This example problem illustrates how to use the half-reaction method to balance a redox reaction in a solution. Question Balance the following redox reaction in an acidic solution: Cu(s) HNO3(aq) → Cu2(aq) NO(g) Solution Step 1: Identify what is being oxidized and what is being reduced. To identify which atoms are being reduced or oxidized, assign oxidation states to each atom of the reaction. For review: Rules for Assigning Oxidation StatesAssigning Oxidation States Example ProblemOxidation and Reduction Reaction Example Problem Cu(s): Cu 0HNO3: H 1, N 5, O -6Cu2: Cu 2NO(g): N 2, O -2 Cu went from oxidation state 0 to 2, losing two electrons. Copper is oxidized by this reaction.N went from oxidation state 5 to 2, gaining three electrons. Nitrogen is reduced by this reaction. Step 2: Break the reaction into two half-reactions: oxidation and reduction. Oxidation: Cu → Cu2 Reduction: HNO3 → NO Step 3: Balance each half-reaction by both stoichiometry and electronic charge. This is accomplished by adding substances to the reaction. The only rule is that the only substances you can add must already be in the solution. These include water (H2O), H ions (in acidic solutions), OH- ions (in basic solutions) and electrons. Start with the oxidation half-reaction: The half-reaction is already balanced atomically. To balance electronically, two electrons must be added to the product side. Cu → Cu2 2 e- Now, balance the reduction reaction. This reaction requires more work. The first step is to balance all atoms except oxygen and hydrogen. HNO3 → NO There is only one nitrogen atom on both sides, so nitrogen is already balanced. The second step is to balance the oxygen atoms. This is done by adding water to the side that needs more oxygen. In this case, the reactant side has three oxygens and the product side has only one oxygen. Add two water molecules to the product side. HNO3 → NO 2 H2O The third step is to balance the hydrogen atoms. This is accomplished by adding H ions to the side that needs more hydrogen. The reactant side has one hydrogen atom while the product side has four. Add 3 H ions to the reactant side. HNO3 3 H → NO 2 H2O The equation is balanced atomically, but not electrically. The final step is to balance the charge by adding electrons to the more positive side of the reaction. One the reactant side, the overall charge is 3, while the product side is neutral. To counteract the 3 charge, add three electrons to the reactant side. HNO3 3 H 3 e- → NO 2 H2O Now the reduction half-equation is balanced. Step 4: Equalize the electron transfer. In redox reactions, the number of electrons gained must equal the number of electrons lost. To accomplish this, each reaction is multiplied by whole numbers to contain the same number of electrons. The oxidation half-reaction has two electrons while the reduction half-reaction has three electrons. The lowest common denominator between them is six electrons. Multiply the oxidation half-reaction by 3 and the reduction half-reaction by 2. 3 Cu → 3 Cu2 6 e-2 HNO3 6 H 6 e- → 2 NO 4 H2O Step 5: Recombine the half-reactions. This is accomplished by adding the two reactions together. Once they are added, cancel out anything that appears on both sides of the reaction.   Ã‚  Ã‚  3 Cu → 3 Cu2 6 e- 2 HNO3 6 H 6 e- → 2 NO 4 H2O 3 Cu 2 HNO3 6H 6 e- → 3 Cu2 2 NO 4 H2O 6 e- Both sides have six electrons that can be canceled. 3 Cu 2 HNO3 6 H → 3 Cu2 2 NO 4 H2O The complete redox reaction is now balanced. Answer 3 Cu 2 HNO3 6 H → 3 Cu2 2 NO 4 H2O To summarize: Identify the oxidation and reduction components of the reaction.Separate the reaction into the oxidation half-reaction and reduction half-reaction.Balance each half-reaction both atomically and electronically.Equalize the electron transfer between oxidation and reduction half-equations.Recombine the half-reactions to form the complete redox reaction.

Analysis of Brand Loyalty in China’s Cosmetic Market

Analysis of Brand Loyalty in Chinas Cosmetic Market 1.0 What is cosmetic market? ‘Cosmetic’ are not strange to everyone, even though some people don’t use them. They definitely hear about them. Cosmetics were invented in thousands years ago. When cosmetics were introduced, they were considered as exclusive things used by female. In those times, only few kinds of cosmetics existed. Some people believe cosmetics are limited by some sorts such as perfume, makeup. Actually, cosmetics come in many forms. Except for perfume and makeup, they comprise of shampoo, soap, lotion and others. Cosmetics are used to care for and clean people’ body, maintain people in a well condition and enhance people’ beauty (Kumar et al., 2006). For instance, the goal of sun protection is to keep out UV and reduce the risk of getting skin cancer. In the past, men used cosmetics to dress up would be treated effeminate. Certainly, people didn’t hear about men’s cosmetic advertising. Nowadays, the reality has graduall y changed. The cosmetics have not been the patent of women. Men and kids join in group of using cosmetics. The number is increasingly growing up. Està ©e Lauder as the first women’s cosmetic companies tried to enter the male cosmetic market in 1964. After 1year trial, it came out with Aramis and an entire line for men’s skin. (Alpern) In cosmetic market, thousands of cosmetics for men and kid are available. In past ten year, cosmetic companies launched some products that were suitable for both men and women. As men customers increase, companies start to launch new product line for men. Exclusive perfume and cleansing foam were designed for men. In order to target these emerging potential customers, many cosmetic companies invest a lot on advertising through TV, beauty magazine and others. The aim of the advertisement is to convey the idea that cosmetics are not girly products. Some big cosmetic companies employ famous actors or sportsmen to promote products through po sitive imagery. It lets men believe that using cosmetics is very normal. (Souiden and Diagne, 2009) The cosmetic industry is one of the most competitive industries all over the world because more than 300 cosmetic brands exist in the market. Most of these companies utilize great number of resource in Research and development to launch new products every year in order to meet ever-changing customers’ need and demand. Innovation is fundamental to survival and success of cosmetic companies. (Kumar et al., 2006) To stay vantage point during fierce competition, cosmetic companies should create value to customers. The World’ top ten cosmetic companies are Maybellline accounting for 7.4% market share, Avon (5.4%), L’Orà ©al Paris (5.3%), Lancà ´me (4%), Clinique ( 3.6%), Revlon (3.3%), Està ©e Lauder (2.9%), Max Factor ( 2.8%), Cover Girl (2.7%) and Shiseido (2.2%) (Ejiofor, 2006). All of them seize about 40% of the market share. 1.1 Overview of cosmetic market in C hina China is the countries with the largest population in the world it makes up one-fifth of the world’s population. The population growth rate of China is 0.629% in 2008 with a current average life expectancy of 73.18. Men possess 51.8% of the total population whereas women possess 48.2%. (Nancy E, 2008) Chinese paying more attention to beauty can date back to ancientry. It has already deeply rooted in Chinese culture. In Chinese poetry and art, beauty has always been extol (Newham, 2006)

Financial alliance boots Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Financial alliance boots - Essay Example What do you think are some of the arguments that could be raised against this policy? The report will provide detailed calculations and will make sure that all assumptions are clearly stated and explained. To determine how effective are the value delivered to the shareholder we need to know whether the actual ratios generated are higher than the implied cost of capital. In other words there must be an evidence to tell that the wealth of the stockholders increased or maximized compared with those companies with are part of the FTSE 100 over the last three years. Please note that shareholder value means increased wealth for purposes of this finance paper since it is assumed that investors invest to increase wealth. The FTSE 100 Index shows â€Å"the 100 most highly capitalized companies listed on the London Stock Exchange,† (Forbes.com (2007), which certain requirements by the FTSE Group, such which include London Stock Exchange full listing with a Sterling or Euro dominated price, complying with certain tests on nationality, free float, and requirements for liquidity. The index is viewed as a barometer of success of the British economy (Guardian Unlimited, 2007) and it not actually a stock exchange. Being part therefore of the FTSE 100 is an indication of top performing companies in UK in terms of stock prices and the company must be doing well. Against therefore the standard which holds the company belonging to the index, how Alliance Boots does perform in delivering value to stockholders. Citing therefore the rates of Alliance Boots, we have the following information for the lasts three years below: Basing from the information above, in terms of delivered stockholder value, it could be deduced that the company is being well in terms of the high dividend yield at 4.2%, 4.8% and 4.8% for the last years ending March 31 of 2006, 2005 and 2004 respectively. Dividend per share was almost

Issues of medical waste related to business, society, and government Essay

Issues of medical waste related to business, society, and government - Essay Example The spread of infections is easy if medical waste is accessible in such a manner posing a threat to the society. The haphazard disposal pollutes the environment making living around dump sites uncomfortable. The government, society and the business firms all have to work in unison to alleviate the problem of medical waste. The society is the receiver of the shortcoming of poor medical waste handling. The gases released in the atmosphere from the hospitals like sevoflurane, isoflurane and desflurane contribute to global warming (Talsma, 2009). The society is suffering from poor medical waste management. The hospitals disposing of the waste are part of the society as their business is from the sick individuals in the society. The workers in the health institutions and facilities are part of the society and need to be in a clean environment free from contamination. The three parties are affected by the waste. They have to ensure that the best waste management method in use at all cost. Organisations always prefer maximizing their profits. The social responsibility of organisations is engrained in the business culture. If an organization is not socially responsible, the company may use any means include unethical to achieve its objectives. Profits made by hospitals can be in the allocation of partly ensuring that the waste is disposed appropriately. The appropriate disposal methods are costly as sorting and grouping of waste requires time and extra labour. Hospitals should accept to bear such cost to ensure that the environment is sustainable for the society. The social responsibility is important as it indicates the value the hospital attaches to it. The government regulate the business through legislation. The laws the government sets are important in waste management. These laws are compulsory and not optional they thus ensure that a set standard is in maintenance. Self-regulation is important as it ensures that set

Dr. Vert's Ch. 6 Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dr. Vert's Ch. 6 Summary - Essay Example However, the trouble comes in because not all information is able to be put into a category easily, and because of that, it might fit into two or more categories. It also becomes confusing because one piece of information might relate to another in a very small way, but both should still be available, so that the person searching the information could see it and use it, if they wanted to. Most of the issues that come with managing information of this type are related to ‘spatial information’, or information that would be better characterized by the space it occupies rather than the information it actually holds. Examples of this are things such as street maps, climate maps, and scientific records of events such as earthquakes and tsunamis. The biggest issue that is faced in trying to retrieve and make sense of information about these events is that many pieces of information are scattered over many different computers, like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle that has been dumped from its box and scattered throughout a room. It becomes more of a scavenger hunt to put the pieces of the puzzle together than to figure out the picture the puzzle tries to represent. Think about how much time is being wasted looking for the different pieces of the puzzle. Dr.

Economics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 21

Economics - Essay Example The sellers have an ‘insignificant’ market share in a perfectly competitive market, implying that each firm is acting as a price-taker. In monopolistic competition, on the other hand, has as many producers and consumers as the perfect competition. Producers enjoy a degree of control over price. The products sold and purchased in a perfectly competitive market are homogeneous, which are perfect substitutes for each other. In contrast, the products sold in the monopolistically competitive market are heterogeneous. In other words, when a large number of buyers and sellers interact to buy and sell heterogeneous products we have monopolistic competition. Thus, a monopolistically competitive market differs with a perfectly competitive market mostly because of product differentiation, i.e. products are not perfect substitutes. Monopolistic competition involves many aspects of non-price competition. Marginal Revenue (MR) =Marginal Cost (MC) = Price (P) =Average Revenue (AR) = Average Cost (AC). In short run, new firms enter the market, in case the existing firms are making supernormal profits, thereby making reallocation of resources within the market. Given demand remains unchanged, the increased output (with new firms entering the market) shifts the aggregate supply curve to the right and drives the equilibrium market price down until price equates long run average cost. Thus, long run equilibrium is established as firms having no incentives now to move in or out of the market. Hence, in the long run firms make normal profits. In perfect competition ‘allocative efficiency’ is achieved, both in short run and long run, since price equates marginal cost. Production efficiency, occurring when price is equal to average cost at its minimum, is, however, achieved only in the long run. Combining the two, it can be said in the long run optimal levels of ‘static economic efficiency’ is reached in perfect competition. MR

The growth performance of China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The growth performance of China - Essay Example Although, Globalization and liberalization policies were the brain child of the capitalist countries like U.S and UK, China seems to be the number one exploiter of globalization which helped them immensely in achieving tremendous economic growth. This paper analyses the economic growth performances of China. â€Å"During 1997–2005, the PRC’s average annual growth rate in real GDP was 8.9%. During the forecast period of 2005–2010, it was assumed that the PRC continued its historical growth trend of 8.9% per year† (Mai et al, 2010, p.5) (See appendix for more details). China is able to continue or sustain their economic growth even with the help of some unbelievable polices. In fact China has rewritten some of the established economic principles. For example, BACK,(2010) mentioned that â€Å"in any other major economy where growth had accelerated as quickly as China's, higher interest rates would seem inevitable. But in China, authorities have been reluctan t to raise rates† (Back, 2010). In other words, according to traditional economic principles, a country should increase the interest rates when they feel that that their economy is overheated because of over economic exercises. But China did nothing to cool down the over activities in economic sector and kept the interest rates at a lower level until now. Even though economists have some concerns about the over activities in Chinese economic sector and the low interest rates, no big problems were reported so far from China. â€Å"Still, the government isn't dramatically cutting state-supplied credit. This year's loan target, although down considerably from last year, is still more than 50% higher than that of 2008† (Roberts, 2010). Another interesting tactics which helped the economic progress of China is the mass production of consumer goods. When most of the other nations tried to increase the profit by increasing the prices of their products, China did entirely the o pposite thing. They reduced the prices of their commodities and succeeded in selling more goods in international markets than any other countries. Thus they were able to counter the negative effects of price reduction with the help of bulk production and selling. Mai et al (2010) have pointed out that â€Å"the PRC’s exports increase by about 46%and imports by about 45% relative to their respective baseline levels in 2010. Imports and exports of all commodities and services rise relative to their baseline levels† (Mai et al, 2010, p.7) Another important step taken by China for boosting their economic progress was the welcoming of FDI. Even though China is communist country, they have realized that without private capital it is impossible for them to advance further. Foreign investment helped China to polish their production technologies and management skills further. â€Å"The key benefit of foreign investment is improvement in productivity as other players in the hos t industry catch up with the performance standards set by foreign investors† (Mai et al, 2010, p.14) The economic reformation processes undertaken by China under the leadership of Deng in the 80’s and 90’s helped them to speed up their economic progress. Deng succeeded in relieving the industry sector from the complete dominance of the government and lot of small scale industries

Dr. Vert's Ch. 6 Summary Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dr. Vert's Ch. 6 Summary - Essay Example However, the trouble comes in because not all information is able to be put into a category easily, and because of that, it might fit into two or more categories. It also becomes confusing because one piece of information might relate to another in a very small way, but both should still be available, so that the person searching the information could see it and use it, if they wanted to. Most of the issues that come with managing information of this type are related to ‘spatial information’, or information that would be better characterized by the space it occupies rather than the information it actually holds. Examples of this are things such as street maps, climate maps, and scientific records of events such as earthquakes and tsunamis. The biggest issue that is faced in trying to retrieve and make sense of information about these events is that many pieces of information are scattered over many different computers, like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle that has been dumped from its box and scattered throughout a room. It becomes more of a scavenger hunt to put the pieces of the puzzle together than to figure out the picture the puzzle tries to represent. Think about how much time is being wasted looking for the different pieces of the puzzle. Dr.

The growth performance of China Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

The growth performance of China - Essay Example Although, Globalization and liberalization policies were the brain child of the capitalist countries like U.S and UK, China seems to be the number one exploiter of globalization which helped them immensely in achieving tremendous economic growth. This paper analyses the economic growth performances of China. â€Å"During 1997–2005, the PRC’s average annual growth rate in real GDP was 8.9%. During the forecast period of 2005–2010, it was assumed that the PRC continued its historical growth trend of 8.9% per year† (Mai et al, 2010, p.5) (See appendix for more details). China is able to continue or sustain their economic growth even with the help of some unbelievable polices. In fact China has rewritten some of the established economic principles. For example, BACK,(2010) mentioned that â€Å"in any other major economy where growth had accelerated as quickly as China's, higher interest rates would seem inevitable. But in China, authorities have been reluctan t to raise rates† (Back, 2010). In other words, according to traditional economic principles, a country should increase the interest rates when they feel that that their economy is overheated because of over economic exercises. But China did nothing to cool down the over activities in economic sector and kept the interest rates at a lower level until now. Even though economists have some concerns about the over activities in Chinese economic sector and the low interest rates, no big problems were reported so far from China. â€Å"Still, the government isn't dramatically cutting state-supplied credit. This year's loan target, although down considerably from last year, is still more than 50% higher than that of 2008† (Roberts, 2010). Another interesting tactics which helped the economic progress of China is the mass production of consumer goods. When most of the other nations tried to increase the profit by increasing the prices of their products, China did entirely the o pposite thing. They reduced the prices of their commodities and succeeded in selling more goods in international markets than any other countries. Thus they were able to counter the negative effects of price reduction with the help of bulk production and selling. Mai et al (2010) have pointed out that â€Å"the PRC’s exports increase by about 46%and imports by about 45% relative to their respective baseline levels in 2010. Imports and exports of all commodities and services rise relative to their baseline levels† (Mai et al, 2010, p.7) Another important step taken by China for boosting their economic progress was the welcoming of FDI. Even though China is communist country, they have realized that without private capital it is impossible for them to advance further. Foreign investment helped China to polish their production technologies and management skills further. â€Å"The key benefit of foreign investment is improvement in productivity as other players in the hos t industry catch up with the performance standards set by foreign investors† (Mai et al, 2010, p.14) The economic reformation processes undertaken by China under the leadership of Deng in the 80’s and 90’s helped them to speed up their economic progress. Deng succeeded in relieving the industry sector from the complete dominance of the government and lot of small scale industries

Special Ed. Essay Example for Free

Special Ed. Essay With the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) in 2001 and revisions of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), schools have implemented the pre-referral process encouraging individual based level of education for a particular student. Historically, before recent updates to state and federal special education guidelines, students typically received special attention to their specific needs through parent conferences, generic observations, a few general intervention techniques, psychological evaluation, or simply a review of report cards, social records. Since the implementation of IDEA, students are now receiving proactive approaches to match his or her level of need. Two such approaches of evaluating individual students are Positive Behavior Support (PBS) and Response to Intervention (RTI). Both PBS and RTI are structured on a different model, but both have the same goals. Each intervention approach takes into account components and accounts for critical universal factors that target a specific individual, group, or level. These two models offer a range of interventions that are scientifically applied to a student, based on the student’s level of needs through previous monitoring in the classroom. Response to Intervention (RTI) is defined as â€Å"the practice of providing high-quality instruction and interventions matched to student need, monitoring progress frequently to make decisions about changes in instruction or goals, and applying child response data to important educational decisions† (Batsche et al. , 2006). RTI has emerged as the more popular of the two intervention model’s and has been accepted by most schools in the United States, as the new way of thinking about early intervention and identifying a child’s educational disability. The RTI approach considers the application of an individual student’s difficulties in schools by evaluating student’s environment and then provides intervention as soon as the student shows signs difficulty, lack of focus, or academic problems. The goal of RTI is to ensure all students receive the highest quality of education and instruction and reduce any possible false referrals to unnecessary classes, or programs. RTI has a three tier model for also eliminating unqualified teachers as a reason for a student’s lack of performance, or grades. For example in, tier I of the three modeled tier, teachers are required to implement different teaching techniques in order to gauge a student’s performance and focus toward learning. This form of teaching is a method only most qualified teachers can provide in the RTI process. Tier one is described as a universal assessment using formal and informal instructional techniques. Tier two targets students that have not made progress in a given amount of time and are monitored frequently. These students are considered as having some academic weakness. Tier three is more of an intensive intervention and for students that do not respond to instruction form tier two. Tier three students may be eligible for special education classes and programs. When a student is evaluated and qualifies for tier three, the students will be specially monitored and eventually reviewed for receiving an individual educational program (IEP). Positive Behavior Intervention and Support (PBIS), is based more on a model of how to solve inappropriate behavior and prevent that behavior through teaching and reinforcing appropriate behaviors. â€Å"Positive Behavior Intervention and Support (PBIS) is a process for creating school environments that are more predictable and effective for achieving academic and social goals. For some schools, PBIS will enhance their current systems and practices, for others it will radically change the culture for the better† (www. cms. k12. nc. us). Positive Behavioral Intervention and Supports (PBIS) is a systemic approach to proactive, school-wide behavior based on a Response to Intervention (RTI) model. â€Å"The concept of PBIS has been researched in education for approximately 15 years† (www. cms. k12. nc. us) and has been implemented successfully in thousands of schools in over 40 states. PBIS applies evidence-based programs, practices and strategies for all students to increase academic performance, improve safety, decrease problem behavior, and establish a positive school culture. Schools implementing PBIS build on existing strengths, complementing and organizing current programming and strategies. The PBIS model had resulted in dramatic reductions in disciplinary interventions and increases in academic achievement. Data-based decision making is a hallmark of PBIS and is a scientific approach to the pre-referral process to special education. There are many ways to define, or explain the concepts of PBIS and RTI, but each provides a specific three tiered pre-referral process to special education that will enhance the quality of life for students participating in these interventions. Whichever intervention a student is placed, he, or she should receive a higher quality education and instruction. Elements common in these models indicate a system of intervention based on a student’s performance that will indicated whether there is a legitimate learning disability, not just the need for additional instruction for no reason. References RESPONSE TO INTERVENTION. (2006). In Encyclopedia of Special Education: A Reference for the Education of the Handicapped and Other Exceptional Children and Adults. Retrieved May 23, 2012, from: http:library. gcu. edu:2048/login? qurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww. cred oreference. com/entry/ wileyse/response_to_intervention CPI Educate. Empower. Enrich. (2012). Retrieved May 23, 2012, from: http://www. crisisprevention. com/Resources/Knowledge-Base/Positive-Behavior-Support SEDL Advancing research, improving education (2012). Retrieved May 23, 2012, from : http://www. sedl. org/pubs/sedl-letter/v19n02/rti. html CMS Charlotte-Mecklenburg Schools. (2011). Retrieved May 23, 2012, from: http://www. cms. k12. nc. us/cmsdepartments/PBIS/Pages/default. aspx Response to Intervention (2012). Retrieved May 23, 2012, from: http://www. nasponline. org/resources/handouts/revisedPDFs/rtiprimer. pdf

Analysis of Affordable Housing in London

Analysis of Affordable Housing in London 1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report published recently by the Greater London Authority on the problem of affordable housing in London in June 2005, revealed that the issue of â€Å"affordable housing† (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) was the most pressing matter Londoners wished to see dealt with in terms of improving London as a place to live (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 2.3). The Barker Review of Housing Supply, not only supported this viewpoint, but it identified housing as a basic human need (Barker, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing in London is therefore a controversial and highly topical subject at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). The debate surrounding it is underpinned by various political, sociological, economic and financial factors (Greater London Authority, 2005; Karn and Wolman, 1992; p16 (Rugg,1999; p.19). This thesis will examine why there is an affordable housing shortage; who really would benefit from affordable housing and what sectors of the population are affected by problems associated with affordable housing. The concept of affordable and who really wants it will be examined in detail, since the notion of affordability is essentially so subjective that it is open to interpretation on many levels. Affordability as a concept, will therefore be examined from an ethical point of view; from an economic point of view and finally from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints will all constrain and influence the ultimate interpre tation of what it means to be affordable.    The thesis will attempt to discover if any agency or individual may be blamed for problems associated with affordable housing in London and the policy context this relates to. Historical factors such as Thatcher’s ‘Right to Buy’ policy (Evans, 2004; p.20) will be examined as well as contemporary initiatives such as equity loans for certain keyworkers’ schemes (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 5.16). Where historical issues have impacted the contemporary manifestation of issues connected with affordable housing, these will be analysed. Specifically, the thesis will examine contemporary and historical issues relating to affordable housing through two in depth case studies. One will be on the subject of the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher and the other will relate to the definition and depth of debate contained within the idea of affordable housing. These two in depth case studies will be examined qualitatively and will be referred to throughout the thesis. There will also be an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing, and ideas such as artificially controlling the prices of houses in London will be considered. In this sense, there will be a theoretical evaluation of who really wants affordable housing, as the research will specifically ask if it would be desirable to advocate the imposition of affordable housing upon the London housing market.   The thesis will also consider various issues which are related to the problem of affordable housing such as social and economic policies within the city itself and the social problems which are themselves shaped by shortages of affordable housing in London. Therefore various themes will be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these will include social exclusion, poverty, salary concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, house prices, population and demographic cleavages, anti-social behaviour and crime (Greater London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes will be drawn together to ultimately address the question of ‘Who really wants affordable housing?’. 1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this stage the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter are that given the issues which have been highlighted above, an argument can be made that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations will attempt to shed more light on the concept of affordable housing and who really wants it. The next chapter will look at the methodology   for the thesis, which will set out the means through which this may be achieved.    CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY 2.1 Overview This section will explain the definition and nature of qualitative research and how it will be used in the thesis inquiry. It will outline the research methods which will be used in the research and what framework these methods will be used within. The research will be based upon a qualitative analysis of two case studies; one contemporary which will be based on the concept of affordable housing itself, and the other historical and this will centred on the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These case studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts have been identified as an appendix to the thesis. Where quantitative information is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated qualitatively, since the basis of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. Primary evidence in the form of interviews was also used. 2.2 Hypothesis There are two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis. The first is that affordable housing is needed and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do not earn enough money to buy their own houses within London. Another hypothesis of the study is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues; all of which may be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in relation to lessening the problem of affordable housing must take this into account, and simultaneously address economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is therefore that this is the best why to understand and to approach the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested throughout the thesis. 2.3 Aims and Objectives Specifically, the primary aim of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises can be supported. Overall the aim of the study is to examine the concept of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it. Primary qualitative data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housing problem, will also be conducted in order to achieve a better understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London. Another aim of the study is to present and interpret these results. Various perspectives on the problem of affordable housing; its possible solutions and impacts will be advanced and discussed by the writer on the basis of these investigations. The study will aim therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more full understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London; who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues. Ultimately the thesis will aim to add original literature to the research pool in relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem; who it affects and how its adverse effects may be lessened. 2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of Qualitative Research/Explanation of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate    There are two main categories of research methods; qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995: p20) and quantitative methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000; Chapter One). The best way to define one is by reference and comparison to the other since the paradigm of research enquiry is mainly split between these two different research rationales (Bryman, 1995; p95 and 20).   Qualitative research aims to explain concepts and phenomena (Bryman, 1995; p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this research. As we have seen explained above, the focus of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative research enquiry more appropriate to this question relating to affordable housing? Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic ‘in the round’ (Bryman, 1995; p.20). On the contrary, quantitative methods value specificity and outcome linked methods of research (Trout, 1998; p.113). This holistic characteristic of qualitative research fits the wider aim of this thesis enquiry, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its critique and its improvement are all topics which, too, must be understood and approached ‘in the round’. Therefore, while quantitative work tends to predict and hypothesise (Trout, 1998; p.113) about possible outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995; p.20), researching malleable conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research framework therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more appropriately ( Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 1-5).   This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of quantitative research which usually seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998; p.113), rather than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harrison, 2001; p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be understood as inductive (Bryman, 1995; p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This type of research (qualitative) tends to be situational in nature and tends to reflect given cultural and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a level of subjectivity which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or positivist study, since the processes under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5) often cannot be pinned down by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. Again these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into af fordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing are vast (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5).   Differences between qualitative and quantitative research may also be explained by arguing that qualitative research is process related (Bryman, 1995; p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) over the various processes which are to be understood, whereas conversely variables are strictly controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998; p.113). Others have explained the differences between qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the former is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995; p.20) (since it has a focus on society and sociological forces), while the latter; quantitative research being more ‘scientific’ (Trout, 1998; p.113). Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995; p.20), allowing a researcher room to analyse possible outcomes/rationales/explanations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) as well as the ones which will potentially be accepted as the most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to regard it as a ‘soft’ subject’ area (Bryman, 1995; p.20) which lends itself well to the area of social science research as opposed to ‘hard’ subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998; p.113). However, this particular dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no better reason than those who critique qualitative research in these terms fail to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or ‘scientific’ terms do not take precedence over research enquiries into what is not tangible. Simply because a concept may be difficult to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of being understood credibly. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in different ways by different people does not strip each differing rationale of validity simply because another explanation may be pointed to. It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not always equipped to cope with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood through mere extrapolation, which is what makes the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally important and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.   These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case that qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore merely a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design. 2.3 Sources and Framework  Ã‚   This thesis will rely upon   primary data gathered through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as local residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a Housing Association in Notting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as Government reports and current debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studies and contemporary and historical books. These sources will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained previously, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press publications and speeches through these means will also be important. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. Reference will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the range of sources which have been explained above will ensure that the research engages the subject with the necessary degree of depth and theoretical perspective. 2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative research is ultimately more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives.   Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information needed to comment on the validity of the hypothesises outlined above.     CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW PART ONE: DEFINITIONS; AND THE PROBLEM OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN LONDON 3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of Affordable Housing Refer to? Affordable Housing has been defined by Plymouth City Council as: ‘Low cost market, and subsidised housing..that will be available to people who cannot afford to rent or buy houses generally available on the open market†¦.that definition should be framed to endure for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local incomes and their relationship to house prices or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in time (http://www.plymouth.gov.uk ).   Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the inaccessibility of certain areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, police officers and employees of the health and social services (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 5.16) (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are ‘priced out of the market’ which means that on the salary that is typically earned by people in their jobs, it is difficult to find a house which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16).  Ã‚   The problem of affordable housing has also defined as ‘infrastructure needs’. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way: ‘The changing face of London’s population has immediate implications for every aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and culture†¦Housing provides a useful example..London has 42 per cent of England’s most overcrowded households..’ (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 2.8).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Affordable housing therefore refers to a situation where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being built to satisfy the level of demand there is for these types of houses and accommodation in general (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 5.17 and Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). This situation (some would say artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the mechanics of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the heart of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing can be when it is viewed from particular standpoints. The concept of affordable housing is particularly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997; p.7 and Rugg, 1999; p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the social problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is reluctant to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low wages for certain sectoral groups. In terms of economics (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat suspended from the analysis and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as supply, demand, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector. These issues of definition are important to an analysis of affordable housing since, if one is to examine the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to extrapolate the concept in sufficient detail. Therefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the concept essentially means to different people, as the next section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate. 3.1.b Economic Analysis of the Problem The price of housing in a free-market economy is determined by supply and demand. The supply of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, producers will find it profitable to allocate more resources to the production of houses relative to the production of other things they might otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the demand for housing falls. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it advantageous to substitute away from the consumption of houses towards the consumption of other goods that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, known as the â€Å"equilibrium† price, is the price at which these two forces, demand and supply are equal. This is how economists’ typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002; ch.1). How does the price of housing adjust to ensure that â€Å"equilibrium† is reached? If demand exceeds supply, then there is more demand for housing at the existing price than producers are willing to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. These potential purchasers start competing with one another by offering suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price lowers demand. This means that the â€Å"excess demand† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid upward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-on e is rationed and excess demand falls to zero. Of course, this process can be reversed.   Imagine that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. Now it is the producers of houses who are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to sell a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the â€Å"excess supply† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Just like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid downward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002; ch.7). What are we to make of this analysis from economics? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. But can this give us some insight into the concept of â€Å"affordability†? Not really. The notion of â€Å"affordability† is one that does not make sense within the discipline of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless. Let me explain. In economics, the equilibrium price of housing (also known as the â€Å"market† price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can neither be too high or too low. Provided that the housing market is a so-called â€Å"competitive† market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). How does economics reach this surprising conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium price, all gains from trade in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). In other words, despite claims that economics is a â€Å"positivist† subject, it is committed to a specific normative theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996; Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean? Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to demonstrate that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to build just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be willing to pay a producer in order to build that house (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). Given that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a mutually beneficial trade to occur between a potential buyer and a potential seller.   To illustrate this, imagine that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs the price of houses to rise from  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 to  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as opposed to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to pay in order to induce the producer to build the additional house is strictly greater than  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000. If that price is, for example,  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 in order to build the house. This is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 but instead gets  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 – the producer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000. Economists say that â€Å"producer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000 (Lands burg, 2002; Ch.8).   Similarly, the buyer gets the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 but was willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000 for it. The buyer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000. Economists say that â€Å"consumer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000 (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. Trade is not necessarily a zero-sum game. How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward movement in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advantageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additional house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it – neither consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Economists refer to this state as one of â€Å"economic efficiency† or â€Å"Pareto efficiency†. (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the principle of economic efficiency). Adam Smith referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the â€Å"Invisible Hand†. He said â€Å"Every individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention† (Smith, 1776; p.243). Smith’s idea is that people acting in their own self-interest may produce unintended consequences which, surprisingly, can serve the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another push the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit. How does this analysis help with the problem of â€Å"affordable housing†? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be affordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in the housing market and then leave the market to its own devices. This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is missing from the economic approach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of â€Å"equity†, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To illustrate this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000. Then those who are willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the â€Å"ethically appropriate† way to allocate houses to people. The reason is fairly obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A rich person might be willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mean that it is better th at the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the â€Å"equity-efficiency† trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable distribution of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism. 3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing Addressed? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to ameliorate the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a positive impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.   One such policy   takes the form of Section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 (which became operative in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963; p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may arise in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27).   Where a major developer wishes to obtain planning permission for a development in a given area, it is the case that such developments will put pressure on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the planned developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). However, this statute has been criticised, especially by Kate Barker (2006; p.11), as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006; p.11). Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, Metropolitan Home Ownership and London Str Analysis of Affordable Housing in London Analysis of Affordable Housing in London 1.1 Arguments and Discussions A report published recently by the Greater London Authority on the problem of affordable housing in London in June 2005, revealed that the issue of â€Å"affordable housing† (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) was the most pressing matter Londoners wished to see dealt with in terms of improving London as a place to live (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 2.3). The Barker Review of Housing Supply, not only supported this viewpoint, but it identified housing as a basic human need (Barker, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing in London is therefore a controversial and highly topical subject at the moment (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). The debate surrounding it is underpinned by various political, sociological, economic and financial factors (Greater London Authority, 2005; Karn and Wolman, 1992; p16 (Rugg,1999; p.19). This thesis will examine why there is an affordable housing shortage; who really would benefit from affordable housing and what sectors of the population are affected by problems associated with affordable housing. The concept of affordable and who really wants it will be examined in detail, since the notion of affordability is essentially so subjective that it is open to interpretation on many levels. Affordability as a concept, will therefore be examined from an ethical point of view; from an economic point of view and finally from a sociological and political point of view, since these viewpoints will all constrain and influence the ultimate interpre tation of what it means to be affordable.    The thesis will attempt to discover if any agency or individual may be blamed for problems associated with affordable housing in London and the policy context this relates to. Historical factors such as Thatcher’s ‘Right to Buy’ policy (Evans, 2004; p.20) will be examined as well as contemporary initiatives such as equity loans for certain keyworkers’ schemes (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 5.16). Where historical issues have impacted the contemporary manifestation of issues connected with affordable housing, these will be analysed. Specifically, the thesis will examine contemporary and historical issues relating to affordable housing through two in depth case studies. One will be on the subject of the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher and the other will relate to the definition and depth of debate contained within the idea of affordable housing. These two in depth case studies will be examined qualitatively and will be referred to throughout the thesis. There will also be an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing, and ideas such as artificially controlling the prices of houses in London will be considered. In this sense, there will be a theoretical evaluation of who really wants affordable housing, as the research will specifically ask if it would be desirable to advocate the imposition of affordable housing upon the London housing market.   The thesis will also consider various issues which are related to the problem of affordable housing such as social and economic policies within the city itself and the social problems which are themselves shaped by shortages of affordable housing in London. Therefore various themes will be drawn out during the course of the thesis and these will include social exclusion, poverty, salary concerns amongst professional and semi-professional sectors, house prices, population and demographic cleavages, anti-social behaviour and crime (Greater London Authority, 2005, Section 5.16 ). These themes will be drawn together to ultimately address the question of ‘Who really wants affordable housing?’. 1.2 Conclusions and Recommendations At this stage the conclusions and recommendations of the chapter are that given the issues which have been highlighted above, an argument can be made that affordable housing is a controversial issue which warrants further investigation. These investigations will attempt to shed more light on the concept of affordable housing and who really wants it. The next chapter will look at the methodology   for the thesis, which will set out the means through which this may be achieved.    CHAPTER TWO: METHODOLOGY 2.1 Overview This section will explain the definition and nature of qualitative research and how it will be used in the thesis inquiry. It will outline the research methods which will be used in the research and what framework these methods will be used within. The research will be based upon a qualitative analysis of two case studies; one contemporary which will be based on the concept of affordable housing itself, and the other historical and this will centred on the ‘Right to Buy’ policy introduced by Thatcher in 1980. These case studies will be derived from examination of published texts within the field of economic and politics. These texts have been identified as an appendix to the thesis. Where quantitative information is relevant to the thesis this will be looked at, but evaluated qualitatively, since the basis of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. Primary evidence in the form of interviews was also used. 2.2 Hypothesis There are two hypothesises which will feature in this thesis. The first is that affordable housing is needed and wanted by the economically disadvantaged within London, and these groups include the poor, the disabled and specific sectors of workers who do not earn enough money to buy their own houses within London. Another hypothesis of the study is that affordable housing is a problem which comprises many interrelated and intersecting issues; all of which may be seen as sociological, economic and political. It follows that any credible proposals in relation to lessening the problem of affordable housing must take this into account, and simultaneously address economic, political and sociological problems. The essence of this hypothesis is therefore that this is the best why to understand and to approach the description and evaluation of the problem of affordable housing in London and who really wants it. These hypothesises will be tested throughout the thesis. 2.3 Aims and Objectives Specifically, the primary aim of the study is to examine whether the above mentioned hypothesises can be supported. Overall the aim of the study is to examine the concept of affordable housing in London, and who really wants it. Primary qualitative data in the form of interviews with key workers and London residents affected by the affordable housing problem, will also be conducted in order to achieve a better understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London. Another aim of the study is to present and interpret these results. Various perspectives on the problem of affordable housing; its possible solutions and impacts will be advanced and discussed by the writer on the basis of these investigations. The study will aim therefore to use this discussion in order to achieve a more full understanding of the problem of affordable housing in London; who really wants it and related sociological, economic and political issues. Ultimately the thesis will aim to add original literature to the research pool in relation to the problem of affordable housing in London, providing a detailed and holistic overview of the problem; who it affects and how its adverse effects may be lessened. 2.4 Arguments and Discussions Definition of Qualitative Research/Explanation of Why Qualitative Research is Appropriate    There are two main categories of research methods; qualitative methods (Bryman, 1995: p20) and quantitative methods (Bornat, Chamberlayne and Wengraf, 2000; Chapter One). The best way to define one is by reference and comparison to the other since the paradigm of research enquiry is mainly split between these two different research rationales (Bryman, 1995; p95 and 20).   Qualitative research aims to explain concepts and phenomena (Bryman, 1995; p95). Specifically the concept of affordable housing will be addressed in this research. As we have seen explained above, the focus of the research will be mainly qualitative in nature. However, in what ways is a qualitative research enquiry more appropriate to this question relating to affordable housing? Qualitative research tends to be more holistic (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) than specific which means that it seeks to understand a topic ‘in the round’ (Bryman, 1995; p.20). On the contrary, quantitative methods value specificity and outcome linked methods of research (Trout, 1998; p.113). This holistic characteristic of qualitative research fits the wider aim of this thesis enquiry, as the problem of affordable housing, its causes, purpose, its critique and its improvement are all topics which, too, must be understood and approached ‘in the round’. Therefore, while quantitative work tends to predict and hypothesise (Trout, 1998; p.113) about possible outcomes, the qualitative researcher will often embark upon their research enquiry with an open mind (Bryman, 1995; p.20), researching malleable conclusions as the enquiry unfolds. This open ended research framework therefore fits the infinitely complex dynamics of affordable housing more appropriately ( Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 1-5).   This open-ended research aim (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) relating to qualitative research may be contrasted with the aim of quantitative research which usually seeks to be confirmatory (Trout, 1998; p.113), rather than (and also more so than) explanatory (Harrison, 2001; p.68). In this context, qualitative research may be understood as inductive (Bryman, 1995; p.20) whereas quantitative research tends to be more deductive in nature. This type of research (qualitative) tends to be situational in nature and tends to reflect given cultural and theoretical mores (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12). This imbibes qualitative research methods with a level of subjectivity which would not be appropriate in a quantitative or positivist study, since the processes under examination (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5) often cannot be pinned down by or encapsulated within a quantitative research framework. Again these characteristics of qualitative research fit the enquiry into af fordable housing more appropriately since the levels of subjectivity involved in the arguments and theories connected with affordable housing are vast (Greater London Authority, 2006; Sections 1-5).   Differences between qualitative and quantitative research may also be explained by arguing that qualitative research is process related (Bryman, 1995; p.20) with a relative lack of control (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) over the various processes which are to be understood, whereas conversely variables are strictly controlled within the framework of a quantitative research framework (Trout, 1998; p.113). Others have explained the differences between qualitative and quantitative enquiries by arguing that the former is anthropological in nature (Bryman, 1995; p.20) (since it has a focus on society and sociological forces), while the latter; quantitative research being more ‘scientific’ (Trout, 1998; p.113). Qualitative research methods are also appropriate to this enquiry into affordable housing since they are unstructured (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) and discursive (Bryman, 1995; p.20), allowing a researcher room to analyse possible outcomes/rationales/explanations (Knowles and Sweetman, 2004; p.12) as well as the ones which will potentially be accepted as the most credible. Colloquially, this characteristic of qualitative research leads many to regard it as a ‘soft’ subject’ area (Bryman, 1995; p.20) which lends itself well to the area of social science research as opposed to ‘hard’ subject areas such as maths or physics which may be described as more tangible (Trout, 1998; p.113). However, this particular dichotomy between qualitative and quantitative research methods discredits qualitative research for no better reason than those who critique qualitative research in these terms fail to understand that concepts and phenomena which may be described in tangible, or ‘scientific’ terms do not take precedence over research enquiries into what is not tangible. Simply because a concept may be difficult to understand in isolation, as qualitative subject matter often is does not mean that it is not capable of being understood credibly. Simply because qualitative subject matter may be understood credibly in different ways by different people does not strip each differing rationale of validity simply because another explanation may be pointed to. It must also be remembered that the objectivity of quantitative research often precludes the existence of other explanations of research phenomena, not because there are no valid alternative explanations but because the nature of quantitative enquiry is not always equipped to cope with multi-faceted concepts, whose existence and form may only be conjectured upon and not encapsulated within a given explanation. Concepts and phenomena are not always thoroughly understood through mere extrapolation, which is what makes the pragmatic and open-ended nature of qualitative enquiry universally important and specifically pivotal to this thesis enquiry into affordable housing.   These points should however, in no way, be interpreted as a critique of quantitative methods. Indeed, quantitative statistics and studies will be widely consulted as a vital part of the thesis enquiry (Greater London Authority, 2005; Sections 1-7). It just happens to be the case that qualitative research is a more appropriate means to seek to explain the particular context and rationales underpinning the issue of affordable housing in the context of this particular study. The points, mentioned above regarding the qualitative/quantitative aspects of the wider research paradigm are therefore merely a defence of the qualitative method which will form the main bedrock of this research design. 2.3 Sources and Framework  Ã‚   This thesis will rely upon   primary data gathered through interviews with interested parties and stakeholders in the area of affordable housing. Specifically, groups such as local residents and key workers in London will be interviewed and an interview with a Housing Association in Notting Hill will be conducted. The methodology for this thesis will also rely on sources, such as Government reports and current debates, reports/sources from interested parties in the non-profit making sector, case-studies and contemporary and historical books. These sources will all be used to contextualise the two case studies which, as has been explained previously, form a pivot of the thesis. Archival research in the form of retrieving and consulting relevant press publications and speeches through these means will also be important. The research will therefore be primary and secondary in nature, and it will mainly make wide reference to qualitative/phenomenological material. Reference will also be made to quantitative and empirically derived data. Examining the range of sources which have been explained above will ensure that the research engages the subject with the necessary degree of depth and theoretical perspective. 2.4 Conclusions and Recommendations The conclusion of this chapter is that qualitative research is ultimately more compatible with the overall research aims and objectives.   Primary and secondary qualitative research will be used to gather the information needed to comment on the validity of the hypothesises outlined above.     CHAPTER THREE: LITERATURE REVIEW PART ONE: DEFINITIONS; AND THE PROBLEM OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN LONDON 3.1.a Arguments and Discussions What Does the Concept of Affordable Housing Refer to? Affordable Housing has been defined by Plymouth City Council as: ‘Low cost market, and subsidised housing..that will be available to people who cannot afford to rent or buy houses generally available on the open market†¦.that definition should be framed to endure for the life of the plan, for instance through reference to the level of local incomes and their relationship to house prices or rents, rather than to a particular price or rent applicable at that one point in time (http://www.plymouth.gov.uk ).   Affordable housing causes particular demographic cleavages such as the inaccessibility of certain areas of London to what are referred to as key or essential workers such as teachers, nurses, police officers and employees of the health and social services (Greater London Authority, 2005; Section 5.16) (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16). This problem of inaccessibility means that these groups are ‘priced out of the market’ which means that on the salary that is typically earned by people in their jobs, it is difficult to find a house which is affordable (Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16).  Ã‚   The problem of affordable housing has also defined as ‘infrastructure needs’. These needs have been elaborated on in the following way: ‘The changing face of London’s population has immediate implications for every aspect of London life-education.transport and infrastructure.employment and employability, competitiveness and culture†¦Housing provides a useful example..London has 42 per cent of England’s most overcrowded households..’ (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 2.8).  Ã‚  Ã‚   Affordable housing therefore refers to a situation where there are not sufficient numbers of houses being built to satisfy the level of demand there is for these types of houses and accommodation in general (Greater London Authority, 2006; Section 5.17 and Karn and Wolman, 1992; p.16) (Barker, 2006; p.7). This situation (some would say artificially) increases the price of property within certain areas affected by affordable housing shortages. These are essentially the mechanics of affordable housing. This definition therefore goes to the heart of what the concept means in practical and real terms. However, this definition does not encapsulate how malleable this concept of affordable housing can be when it is viewed from particular standpoints. The concept of affordable housing is particularly linked with certain social and economic problems, such as social exclusion, poverty and crime (Pacione, 1997; p.7 and Rugg, 1999; p.19). This is also supported through the primary research findings of the writer. An interview with Kate Bond revealed that she was suspicious of the social problems which are associated with affordable housing developments and is reluctant to allow her children to play in these areas (Interview One, 2006; p.1). Affordable housing can therefore also be interpreted from a purely ethical standpoint, in which case it would refer to the wider problem of housing shortages being linked to problems such as poverty, crime and low wages for certain sectoral groups. In terms of economics (and this will be looked at in more detail in the next section) this ethical perspective it somewhat suspended from the analysis and the problem becomes one which is defined in terms of how certain factors such as supply, demand, resources and money shape the concept of affordability in terms of the housing sector. These issues of definition are important to an analysis of affordable housing since, if one is to examine the question of who really wants affordable housing, it is imperative to extrapolate the concept in sufficient detail. Therefore, the problem of affordable housing and its theoretical underpinnings and context will be examined alongside a discussion of what the concept essentially means to different people, as the next section, an economic analysis of the problem of affordable housing and who really wants it, will elucidate. 3.1.b Economic Analysis of the Problem The price of housing in a free-market economy is determined by supply and demand. The supply of houses increases, other things equal, as the price of housing rises. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, producers will find it profitable to allocate more resources to the production of houses relative to the production of other things they might otherwise produce. However, as the price of housing rises, other things equal, the demand for housing falls. The reason for this is that as the price of housing rises, other things equal, consumers will find it advantageous to substitute away from the consumption of houses towards the consumption of other goods that are now relatively cheaper to purchase. The price of housing, known as the â€Å"equilibrium† price, is the price at which these two forces, demand and supply are equal. This is how economists’ typically analyse markets (Landsburg, 2002; ch.1). How does the price of housing adjust to ensure that â€Å"equilibrium† is reached? If demand exceeds supply, then there is more demand for housing at the existing price than producers are willing to supply at that price. In such circumstances, economists say that purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. These potential purchasers start competing with one another by offering suppliers a slightly higher price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the higher price induces more supply, and secondly, the higher price lowers demand. This means that the â€Å"excess demand† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed purchasers. Naturally, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid upward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-on e is rationed and excess demand falls to zero. Of course, this process can be reversed.   Imagine that at the existing price the supply of houses exceeds the demand. Now it is the producers of houses who are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to sell a house at the existing price can. As before, these potential sellers start competing with one another by offering purchasers a slightly lower price for a house than was the case in the market initially. This has two effects; first of all, the lower price induces less supply, and secondly, the lower price raises demand. This means that the â€Å"excess supply† in the market that existed initially falls as a consequence of competition between rationed sellers. Just like the previous case, this process of competition will continue until prices have been bid downward sufficiently to ensure that demand and supply are equal. At this point, no-one is rationed and excess demand falls to zero (Landsburg, 2002; ch.7). What are we to make of this analysis from economics? Economics helps us to understand how prices are determined. They are determined by the forces of supply and demand operating through the mechanism described above. But can this give us some insight into the concept of â€Å"affordability†? Not really. The notion of â€Å"affordability† is one that does not make sense within the discipline of economics. This might be a weakness of economics, but it might also be that the concept itself is meaningless. Let me explain. In economics, the equilibrium price of housing (also known as the â€Å"market† price) is the price that is desirable from a social point of view. It can neither be too high or too low. Provided that the housing market is a so-called â€Å"competitive† market then the equilibrium price is the one that society ought to want (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). How does economics reach this surprising conclusion? It does so from noting that at the equilibrium price, all gains from trade in the market are maximised (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). In other words, despite claims that economics is a â€Å"positivist† subject, it is committed to a specific normative theory of good (Hausman and McPherson, 1996; Ch. 1 and 8). That theory says that what is socially desirable maximises the gains from trade. What does this mean? Let us return to the excess demand example mentioned above. Imagine that at the initial market price, purchasers of houses are â€Å"rationed† – not everyone who wants to buy a house at the existing price can get one. It is simple to demonstrate that at this price, the increase in price needed to induce producers to build just one more house is strictlyless than what potential purchasers would be willing to pay a producer in order to build that house (Landsburg, 2002; ch.8). Given that this condition is satisfied, it is always possible for a mutually beneficial trade to occur between a potential buyer and a potential seller.   To illustrate this, imagine that a producer of houses (a builder, say) needs the price of houses to rise from  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 to  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 in order to find it profitable to build 11 houses as opposed to 10. If there is a situation of excess demand in the market whenever the price of a house is  ¿Ã‚ ¡100,000 then it is always possible to show that the maximum price someone would be willing to pay in order to induce the producer to build the additional house is strictly greater than  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000. If that price is, for example,  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000, then the two parties can trade to their mutual advantage. Imagine that the potential buyer offers the producer a price of  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 in order to build the house. This is a price the producer will happily accept. He or she would have built the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡118,000 but instead gets  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 – the producer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000. Economists say that â€Å"producer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡7000 (Lands burg, 2002; Ch.8).   Similarly, the buyer gets the house for  ¿Ã‚ ¡125,000 but was willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡150,000 for it. The buyer is better-off by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000. Economists say that â€Å"consumer surplus† rises by  ¿Ã‚ ¡25,000 (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). An important insight from economics, as seen in this example, is that mutually advantageous trade is possible. Trade is not necessarily a zero-sum game. How does this relate to the idea that the equilibrium price is the socially desirable one? It does so in the following way. As the excess demand in the market is gradually eliminated through upward movement in prices, the scope for mutually advantageous trade between buyers and sellers shrinks. Remarkably, when the excess demand for houses vanishes and the market is in equilibrium, no more mutually advantageous trades are possible. The price that would induce a producer to build an additional house is equal to the maximum price someone would be willing to pay for it – neither consumer surplus nor producer surplus can rise if this trade takes place. At the market equilibrium, all gains from trade have been realised and no more are possible. Economists refer to this state as one of â€Å"economic efficiency† or â€Å"Pareto efficiency†. (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). The above analysis is the main reason why economists (admittedly with some caution) advocate the use of free markets. If a market is competitive then it will produce on its own devices an equilibrium that is socially desirable (if one accepts the principle of economic efficiency). Adam Smith referred to this general idea (albeit in a different context) as the â€Å"Invisible Hand†. He said â€Å"Every individualgenerally, indeed, neither intends to promote the public interest, nor knows how much he is promoting it. By preferring the support of domestic to that of foreign industry he intends only his own security; and by directing that industry in such a manner as its produce may be of the greatest value, he intends only his own gain, and he is in this, as in many other cases, led by an invisible hand to promote an end which was no part of his intention† (Smith, 1776; p.243). Smith’s idea is that people acting in their own self-interest may produce unintended consequences which, surprisingly, can serve the social good. In the example above, individuals through competition with one another push the market price towards its equilibrium value, and this value is socially desirable. However, to do this was not the intention of the individuals involved. They were just competing with one another and trading with sellers for their own private benefit. How does this analysis help with the problem of â€Å"affordable housing†? From an economic point of view, affordability is a meaningless concept. It is simply not a social objective for things to be affordable, rather the government should seek to promote competition in the housing market and then leave the market to its own devices. This conclusion of economics is striking and quite at odds with other perspectives on this problem. I will argue that affordability is an important problem, and that something fundamental is missing from the economic approach to housing. Within economics what is missing is some notion of â€Å"equity†, or a concern for how the gains from trade are distributed across different people. To illustrate this point, imagine that the equilibrium price of a house in a competitive housing market is  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000. Then those who are willing to pay  ¿Ã‚ ¡200,000 or more for a property will get one, and the situation will be efficient from an economic point of view. However, this might not be the â€Å"ethically appropriate† way to allocate houses to people. The reason is fairly obvious. What someone is willing to pay for anything is constrained by their income. A rich person might be willing to pay more for a house than a poor person, but this does not mean that it is better th at the rich person gets the house as opposed to the poor person. This is sometimes referred to in economics as the â€Å"equity-efficiency† trade-off. This is the idea that less efficiency is the price we have to pay sometimes if we want to ensure a more equitable distribution of goods across people (Landsburg, 2002; Ch.8). Policies designed to promote affordable housing fall into this category. The people who will gain the most from them are people on low income, who cannot guarantee that they will be allocated a house through the market mechanism. 3.1.c How is the Problem of Affordable Housing Addressed? Various policy initiatives have been introduced to ameliorate the problem of affordable housing in London. These will be discussed in this section. These policies and whether they have a positive impact upon the community will also be evaluated in this section.   One such policy   takes the form of Section 106 of the Town and Country Planning Act 1990 (which became operative in 1947 (Jackson, J., 1963; p.18 ), which seeks to address the problems which may arise in relation to affordable housing and the provision of local services (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27).   Where a major developer wishes to obtain planning permission for a development in a given area, it is the case that such developments will put pressure on local services such as schools or hospitals this Act seeks to ensure that some of the cost of such developments are borne by the developers who wish to develop the area (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). Section 106 of this statute therefore provides that agreements may be reached between local planning authorities and developers in relation to planning permission, where the developer is required to make financial contributions towards the local services in the areas where the planned developments are to be built (Monk, S. et al., 2005; p.24-27). However, this statute has been criticised, especially by Kate Barker (2006; p.11), as being in drastic need to reform to make it more simple and certain. The Barker Review also recommended in relation to Section 106, that it be scaled back to address the direct impacts of developments (Barker, 2006; p.11). Also, Housing Associations in London such as the Keystart Housing Association, Tower Homes, Metropolitan Home Ownership and London Str